Zeroth law: If A is in thermal equilibrium with B, and B with C, then A is in thermal equilibrium with C — basis for temperature. Temperature scales: K = °C + 273.15, °F = (9/5)°C + 32. Sensible heat Q = m c ΔT causes temperature change; latent heat Q = m L causes phase change. Heat engine η = W/Q_in; refrigerator COP = Q_C/W = T_C/(T_H − T_C) for Carnot.
Thermal calculators
Temperature, Q = mcΔT, latent heat, engine η, Carnot, refrigerator COP
🔥 Thermal visualization
| Concept | Formula | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Heat energy (sensible heat) | Q = m c ΔT | Specific heat capacity |
| Latent heat | Q = m L | Phase change (no temperature change) |
| Efficiency of heat engine | η = W / Qin = 1 − (Qout / Qin) | Fraction of heat converted to useful work |
| Carnot efficiency (maximum possible) | ηCarnot = 1 − (Tcold / Thot) | Ideal reversible engine |
| Temperature scales | K = °C + 273.15, °F = (9/5)°C + 32 | Zeroth law: thermal equilibrium defines temperature |
| Refrigerator / heat pump (Carnot COP) | COP = QC / W = TC / (TH − TC) | Heat removed from cold per unit work (T in K) |
About thermal energy
Sensible heat Q = m c ΔT causes temperature change, where c is specific heat capacity. Latent heat Q = m L causes phase change (melting, vaporization) without temperature change.
Heat engines
Heat engine efficiency η = W / Q_in measures the fraction of heat input converted to useful work. The Carnot efficiency η_Carnot = 1 − (T_cold / T_hot) is the theoretical maximum for a reversible engine operating between two reservoirs.
SI units
Heat/Energy: joule (J). Mass: kilogram (kg). Specific heat: J/(kg·K). Latent heat: J/kg. Temperature: kelvin (K). Efficiency: dimensionless (0 to 1, or 0% to 100%).